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  5.     <title>UTas ePrints - Reproductive success and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster</title>
  6.     <script type="text/javascript" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/javascript/auto.js"><!-- padder --></script>
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  13.     <meta content="Holdsworth, Mark Christopher" name="eprints.creators_name" />
  14. <meta content="thesis" name="eprints.type" />
  15. <meta content="2007-05-18" name="eprints.datestamp" />
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  18. <meta content="Reproductive success and demography of the
  19. Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster" name="eprints.title" />
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  21. <meta content="270706" name="eprints.subjects" />
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  23. <meta content="fauna, tasmania, parrot, orange-bellied parrot, endangered species, birds" name="eprints.keywords" />
  24. <meta content="The Orange-bellied Parrot is one of only two obligate migratory parrots in the world.
  25. The species is listed nationally as endangered and has been the subject of intensive
  26. study and conservation activities over the past 25 years. Reproductive and
  27. demographic data collected over this period from the wild population form the basis
  28. of this thesis.
  29. Remote breeding sites in southwestern Tasmania at Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet were
  30. used to study this species in the wild. Through deployment of up to 52 artificial nest
  31. boxes and observations of natural nests at Melaleuca it was possible to collect
  32. information on a range of reproductive success parameters over a long period,
  33. including 12 consecutive breeding seasons. In addition, the provision of up to 33 nest
  34. boxes over seven consecutive years at Birchs Inlet provided a comparison with the
  35. use of nest boxes by several competitors at Melaleuca. The use of colour-bands to
  36. identify 760 individuals from 16 different cohorts provided the means to assess a
  37. range of behavioural and demographic parameters of the species.
  38. This study confirmed the Orange-bellied Parrot has a regular migratory pattern with
  39. birds beginning to return to the breeding area on the 2nd October (plus or minus 5.1 days s.d) in
  40. each year. The first birds to return are those in their second year of life or older, while
  41. first-year adult birds begin to arrive 13 days later. The median arrival date for birds in
  42. their second year or older was the 23rd October compared with 9th November for firstyear
  43. adult birds. There was no difference between the sexes in arrival date. The mean
  44. date of last departure from Melaleuca was 5th April (plus or minus 11.1 days s.d).
  45. A total of 190 nests with known contents were studied in the wild and, of these 185
  46. nests contained eggs and five nests contained no eggs. This study found the earliest
  47. laying date was on the 29th November and the latest was the 19th January with eggs
  48. (95%) laid during December (n = 101 eggs). Clutch size ranged from 2-6 eggs with over half of the clutches having 5 eggs and 95.3% of all clutches 4-6 eggs in size. The
  49. mean clutch size was 4.7 eggs per active nest across all years and there was no
  50. evidence the species can produce second clutches in the wild. The mean incubation
  51. period for Orange-bellied Parrot eggs was 21.4 plus or minus 0.8 days (n = 49 observed
  52. incubations). The mean dimensions of unhatched eggs was 22.9 plus or minus 0.98 mm by 18.5 plus or minus 0.67 mm (n = 99 eggs).
  53. The 185 nests with eggs studied by this work contained a total of 874 eggs. Of these
  54. 695 eggs hatched and 179 eggs failed to hatch. Of the 179 failures, 107 eggs (69.7%)
  55. were infertile, 48 eggs (26.8%) were fertile and 24 eggs (13.4%) were of unknown
  56. fertility. Of the 48 unhatched fertile eggs, 23 eggs (47.9%) were early-term failures, 15
  57. eggs (31.2%) were mid-term failures and 10 eggs (20.8%) were late-term failures. The
  58. mean egg fertility rate for the species was calculated to be 85.6% (plus or minus 2.91 s.e).
  59. Hatching success from all eggs laid was 79.5% (i.e. 695 nestlings hatched from 874
  60. eggs laid) with the mean hatching success across all years being 80.2%. A total of 89
  61. nestlings died prior to fledging. Early stage deaths represented 44.9% (n = 40) of all
  62. mortalities and late stage deaths 55.1% (n = 49). The annual egg failure and nestling
  63. mortality varied across years. Of a total of 268 egg and nestling failures across all
  64. years, 66.8% (n = 179 eggs) were attributable to hatch failure and 33.2% (n = 89
  65. nestlings) to mortality. Unhatched infertile eggs represented most (39.9%, n = 107) of
  66. all failures. Of the 190 nesting attempts, only 27 failed to produce any young. The
  67. most common cause of total nest failure was attributed to failure to hatch (44.4%, n =
  68. 12) followed by nestling deaths (37%, n = 10) and no eggs laid (18.5%, n = 5).
  69. Average brood size was 4.0 nestlings plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from 173 nests with
  70. 65.9% of nests producing four (33.5%) or five (32.4%) nestlings. The majority of nests
  71. produced four fledglings with a mean fledgling brood size of 3.7 plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from the 163 successful nests. Only 4.3% of successful nests produced the
  72. maximum of six fledglings.
  73. Of the 190 Orange-bellied Parrot nests studied, 85.8% (n = 163) produced fledglings.
  74. The distribution of nest productivity is presented and discussed in detail. The number
  75. of fledglings produced per breeding attempt varied between zero and six. A total of
  76. 69% of all nests produced 3-5 fledglings whereas 33% of all nests produced four
  77. fledglings. The fledging success for 12 consecutive breeding seasons was 87.2% (606
  78. fledglings from 695 nestlings) and the mean fledging success across all years was
  79. 86.9% (plus or minus 2.47 s.e). The overall breeding success for the Orange-bellied Parrot was
  80. 69.3% (606 fledglings from 874 eggs laid). The overall reproductive output of the
  81. species was 3.3 fledglings per nest (606 fledglings from 185 nests) from an investment
  82. of 4.7 eggs laid.
  83. Egg fertility, nestling survival and fledgling survival of Orange-bellied Parrots in the
  84. wild is noticeably higher than for the captive population, and is equal to or exceeds
  85. many other Psittacidae. The reproductive success results reported here are
  86. comparable with the more common Turquoise Parrot Neophema pulchella of mainland
  87. Australia. Although the Orange-bellied Parrot has a healthy mean fecundity rate of
  88. 1.62 females/egg laying female, there was some variability between years, with a low
  89. of 0.87 females/egg laying female in 1998/99.
  90. The mean lifespan of the Orange-bellied Parrot was calculated to be 2.22 years (plus or minus 0.074 s.e, range = 0.37-11.70, N = 693) with no significant difference between male and
  91. females. Males lived on average for 2.75 years (plus or minus 0.127 s.e, range = 0.43-11.70, n = 240)
  92. and females lived on average for 2.67 years (plus or minus 0.141 s.e, range = 0.18-10.41, n = 189).
  93. The oldest male recorded was 11.70 years of age and the oldest female recorded was
  94. 10.41 years of age. This study was not able to compare the reproductive lifespan of
  95. wild Orange-bellied Parrots with captive-bred birds due to database problems or with other Psittacidae due to lack of comparable studies. The capacity to compare the wild
  96. population with captive-bred birds and other Psittacidae will greatly enhance our
  97. knowledge of the species.
  98. This work suggests the Orange-bellied Parrot does not have a strong fidelity to mates,
  99. nest site or nesting zone. This finding is contrary to previous assumptions made about
  100. the species. This study did not measure hollow availability; however, a comparison of
  101. the use of nest boxes between Birchs Inlet and Melaleuca indicates competition from
  102. introduced species may be limiting the breeding range and reproductive success.
  103. Survivorship rates of juveniles to first breeding (c. one year old), adults and both
  104. sexes were determined. Mean survivorship of juveniles over the study was 55% (plus or minus  3.2
  105. s.e) and is within expected limits when compared to other Psittacidae. Mean
  106. survivorship of adults was 63.6% (plus or minus 2.0 s.e). There was a decreasing trend in survival
  107. rates across all cohorts from 1999 onward with average annual survival declining
  108. markedly thereafter. The reason for this decline is unclear. There was no difference in
  109. survival rate of each sex over the study.
  110. This study has significantly increased our understanding of the reproductive success
  111. and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot. This information will reduce the level
  112. of uncertainty in the Population Viability Analysis model for the species and, in turn,
  113. increase the power of such models to assess the species status and test the
  114. effectiveness of conservation measures. Some of the results of this study have
  115. important implications for future research and conservation of the species. These are
  116. discussed, and include management of nest boxes, refinement of mark-recapture
  117. studies, population viability analysis and influence of introduced nest competitors." name="eprints.abstract" />
  118. <meta content="2006-11" name="eprints.date" />
  119. <meta content="published" name="eprints.date_type" />
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  125. <meta content="Holdsworth, Mark Christopher (2006) Reproductive success and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster. Research Master thesis, University of Tasmania." name="eprints.citation" />
  126. <meta content="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/1/01front.pdf" name="eprints.document_url" />
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  134. <meta content="Reproductive success and demography of the
  135. Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster" name="DC.title" />
  136. <meta content="Holdsworth, Mark Christopher" name="DC.creator" />
  137. <meta content="270706 Life Histories (incl. Population Ecology)" name="DC.subject" />
  138. <meta content="The Orange-bellied Parrot is one of only two obligate migratory parrots in the world.
  139. The species is listed nationally as endangered and has been the subject of intensive
  140. study and conservation activities over the past 25 years. Reproductive and
  141. demographic data collected over this period from the wild population form the basis
  142. of this thesis.
  143. Remote breeding sites in southwestern Tasmania at Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet were
  144. used to study this species in the wild. Through deployment of up to 52 artificial nest
  145. boxes and observations of natural nests at Melaleuca it was possible to collect
  146. information on a range of reproductive success parameters over a long period,
  147. including 12 consecutive breeding seasons. In addition, the provision of up to 33 nest
  148. boxes over seven consecutive years at Birchs Inlet provided a comparison with the
  149. use of nest boxes by several competitors at Melaleuca. The use of colour-bands to
  150. identify 760 individuals from 16 different cohorts provided the means to assess a
  151. range of behavioural and demographic parameters of the species.
  152. This study confirmed the Orange-bellied Parrot has a regular migratory pattern with
  153. birds beginning to return to the breeding area on the 2nd October (plus or minus 5.1 days s.d) in
  154. each year. The first birds to return are those in their second year of life or older, while
  155. first-year adult birds begin to arrive 13 days later. The median arrival date for birds in
  156. their second year or older was the 23rd October compared with 9th November for firstyear
  157. adult birds. There was no difference between the sexes in arrival date. The mean
  158. date of last departure from Melaleuca was 5th April (plus or minus 11.1 days s.d).
  159. A total of 190 nests with known contents were studied in the wild and, of these 185
  160. nests contained eggs and five nests contained no eggs. This study found the earliest
  161. laying date was on the 29th November and the latest was the 19th January with eggs
  162. (95%) laid during December (n = 101 eggs). Clutch size ranged from 2-6 eggs with over half of the clutches having 5 eggs and 95.3% of all clutches 4-6 eggs in size. The
  163. mean clutch size was 4.7 eggs per active nest across all years and there was no
  164. evidence the species can produce second clutches in the wild. The mean incubation
  165. period for Orange-bellied Parrot eggs was 21.4 plus or minus 0.8 days (n = 49 observed
  166. incubations). The mean dimensions of unhatched eggs was 22.9 plus or minus 0.98 mm by 18.5 plus or minus 0.67 mm (n = 99 eggs).
  167. The 185 nests with eggs studied by this work contained a total of 874 eggs. Of these
  168. 695 eggs hatched and 179 eggs failed to hatch. Of the 179 failures, 107 eggs (69.7%)
  169. were infertile, 48 eggs (26.8%) were fertile and 24 eggs (13.4%) were of unknown
  170. fertility. Of the 48 unhatched fertile eggs, 23 eggs (47.9%) were early-term failures, 15
  171. eggs (31.2%) were mid-term failures and 10 eggs (20.8%) were late-term failures. The
  172. mean egg fertility rate for the species was calculated to be 85.6% (plus or minus 2.91 s.e).
  173. Hatching success from all eggs laid was 79.5% (i.e. 695 nestlings hatched from 874
  174. eggs laid) with the mean hatching success across all years being 80.2%. A total of 89
  175. nestlings died prior to fledging. Early stage deaths represented 44.9% (n = 40) of all
  176. mortalities and late stage deaths 55.1% (n = 49). The annual egg failure and nestling
  177. mortality varied across years. Of a total of 268 egg and nestling failures across all
  178. years, 66.8% (n = 179 eggs) were attributable to hatch failure and 33.2% (n = 89
  179. nestlings) to mortality. Unhatched infertile eggs represented most (39.9%, n = 107) of
  180. all failures. Of the 190 nesting attempts, only 27 failed to produce any young. The
  181. most common cause of total nest failure was attributed to failure to hatch (44.4%, n =
  182. 12) followed by nestling deaths (37%, n = 10) and no eggs laid (18.5%, n = 5).
  183. Average brood size was 4.0 nestlings plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from 173 nests with
  184. 65.9% of nests producing four (33.5%) or five (32.4%) nestlings. The majority of nests
  185. produced four fledglings with a mean fledgling brood size of 3.7 plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from the 163 successful nests. Only 4.3% of successful nests produced the
  186. maximum of six fledglings.
  187. Of the 190 Orange-bellied Parrot nests studied, 85.8% (n = 163) produced fledglings.
  188. The distribution of nest productivity is presented and discussed in detail. The number
  189. of fledglings produced per breeding attempt varied between zero and six. A total of
  190. 69% of all nests produced 3-5 fledglings whereas 33% of all nests produced four
  191. fledglings. The fledging success for 12 consecutive breeding seasons was 87.2% (606
  192. fledglings from 695 nestlings) and the mean fledging success across all years was
  193. 86.9% (plus or minus 2.47 s.e). The overall breeding success for the Orange-bellied Parrot was
  194. 69.3% (606 fledglings from 874 eggs laid). The overall reproductive output of the
  195. species was 3.3 fledglings per nest (606 fledglings from 185 nests) from an investment
  196. of 4.7 eggs laid.
  197. Egg fertility, nestling survival and fledgling survival of Orange-bellied Parrots in the
  198. wild is noticeably higher than for the captive population, and is equal to or exceeds
  199. many other Psittacidae. The reproductive success results reported here are
  200. comparable with the more common Turquoise Parrot Neophema pulchella of mainland
  201. Australia. Although the Orange-bellied Parrot has a healthy mean fecundity rate of
  202. 1.62 females/egg laying female, there was some variability between years, with a low
  203. of 0.87 females/egg laying female in 1998/99.
  204. The mean lifespan of the Orange-bellied Parrot was calculated to be 2.22 years (plus or minus 0.074 s.e, range = 0.37-11.70, N = 693) with no significant difference between male and
  205. females. Males lived on average for 2.75 years (plus or minus 0.127 s.e, range = 0.43-11.70, n = 240)
  206. and females lived on average for 2.67 years (plus or minus 0.141 s.e, range = 0.18-10.41, n = 189).
  207. The oldest male recorded was 11.70 years of age and the oldest female recorded was
  208. 10.41 years of age. This study was not able to compare the reproductive lifespan of
  209. wild Orange-bellied Parrots with captive-bred birds due to database problems or with other Psittacidae due to lack of comparable studies. The capacity to compare the wild
  210. population with captive-bred birds and other Psittacidae will greatly enhance our
  211. knowledge of the species.
  212. This work suggests the Orange-bellied Parrot does not have a strong fidelity to mates,
  213. nest site or nesting zone. This finding is contrary to previous assumptions made about
  214. the species. This study did not measure hollow availability; however, a comparison of
  215. the use of nest boxes between Birchs Inlet and Melaleuca indicates competition from
  216. introduced species may be limiting the breeding range and reproductive success.
  217. Survivorship rates of juveniles to first breeding (c. one year old), adults and both
  218. sexes were determined. Mean survivorship of juveniles over the study was 55% (plus or minus  3.2
  219. s.e) and is within expected limits when compared to other Psittacidae. Mean
  220. survivorship of adults was 63.6% (plus or minus 2.0 s.e). There was a decreasing trend in survival
  221. rates across all cohorts from 1999 onward with average annual survival declining
  222. markedly thereafter. The reason for this decline is unclear. There was no difference in
  223. survival rate of each sex over the study.
  224. This study has significantly increased our understanding of the reproductive success
  225. and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot. This information will reduce the level
  226. of uncertainty in the Population Viability Analysis model for the species and, in turn,
  227. increase the power of such models to assess the species status and test the
  228. effectiveness of conservation measures. Some of the results of this study have
  229. important implications for future research and conservation of the species. These are
  230. discussed, and include management of nest boxes, refinement of mark-recapture
  231. studies, population viability analysis and influence of introduced nest competitors." name="DC.description" />
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  356.     <h1 class="ep_tm_pagetitle">Reproductive success and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster</h1>
  357.     <p style="margin-bottom: 1em" class="not_ep_block"><span class="person_name">Holdsworth, Mark Christopher</span> (2006) <xhtml:em>Reproductive success and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot Neophema chrysogaster.</xhtml:em> Research Master thesis, University of Tasmania.</p><p style="margin-bottom: 1em" class="not_ep_block"></p><table style="margin-bottom: 1em" class="not_ep_block"><tr><td valign="top" style="text-align:center"><a onmouseover="EPJS_ShowPreview( event, 'doc_preview_1205' );" href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/1/01front.pdf" onmouseout="EPJS_HidePreview( event, 'doc_preview_1205' );"><img alt="[img]" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png" class="ep_doc_icon" border="0" /></a><div class="ep_preview" id="doc_preview_1205"><table><tr><td><img alt="" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/thumbnails/1/preview.png" class="ep_preview_image" border="0" /><div class="ep_preview_title">Preview</div></td></tr></table></div></td><td valign="top"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/1/01front.pdf"><span class="ep_document_citation">PDF (Front Matter)</span></a> - Requires a PDF viewer<br />365Kb</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" style="text-align:center"><a onmouseover="EPJS_ShowPreview( event, 'doc_preview_1206' );" href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/2/02chapter1.pdf" onmouseout="EPJS_HidePreview( event, 'doc_preview_1206' );"><img alt="[img]" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png" class="ep_doc_icon" border="0" /></a><div class="ep_preview" id="doc_preview_1206"><table><tr><td><img alt="" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/thumbnails/2/preview.png" class="ep_preview_image" border="0" /><div class="ep_preview_title">Preview</div></td></tr></table></div></td><td valign="top"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/2/02chapter1.pdf"><span class="ep_document_citation">PDF (Chapter 1)</span></a> - Requires a PDF viewer<br />4Mb</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" style="text-align:center"><a onmouseover="EPJS_ShowPreview( event, 'doc_preview_1207' );" href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/3/03chapter2.pdf" onmouseout="EPJS_HidePreview( event, 'doc_preview_1207' );"><img alt="[img]" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png" class="ep_doc_icon" border="0" /></a><div class="ep_preview" id="doc_preview_1207"><table><tr><td><img alt="" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/thumbnails/3/preview.png" class="ep_preview_image" border="0" /><div class="ep_preview_title">Preview</div></td></tr></table></div></td><td valign="top"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/3/03chapter2.pdf"><span class="ep_document_citation">PDF (Chapter 2)</span></a> - Requires a PDF viewer<br />7Mb</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" style="text-align:center"><a onmouseover="EPJS_ShowPreview( event, 'doc_preview_1208' );" href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/4/04chapter3.pdf" onmouseout="EPJS_HidePreview( event, 'doc_preview_1208' );"><img alt="[img]" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png" class="ep_doc_icon" border="0" /></a><div class="ep_preview" id="doc_preview_1208"><table><tr><td><img alt="" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/thumbnails/4/preview.png" class="ep_preview_image" border="0" /><div class="ep_preview_title">Preview</div></td></tr></table></div></td><td valign="top"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/4/04chapter3.pdf"><span class="ep_document_citation">PDF (Chapter 3)</span></a> - Requires a PDF viewer<br />532Kb</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" style="text-align:center"><a onmouseover="EPJS_ShowPreview( event, 'doc_preview_1209' );" href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/5/05chapter4.pdf" onmouseout="EPJS_HidePreview( event, 'doc_preview_1209' );"><img alt="[img]" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png" class="ep_doc_icon" border="0" /></a><div class="ep_preview" id="doc_preview_1209"><table><tr><td><img alt="" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/thumbnails/5/preview.png" class="ep_preview_image" border="0" /><div class="ep_preview_title">Preview</div></td></tr></table></div></td><td valign="top"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/5/05chapter4.pdf"><span class="ep_document_citation">PDF (Chapter 4)</span></a> - Requires a PDF viewer<br />198Kb</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" style="text-align:center"><a onmouseover="EPJS_ShowPreview( event, 'doc_preview_1210' );" href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/6/06appendix.pdf" onmouseout="EPJS_HidePreview( event, 'doc_preview_1210' );"><img alt="[img]" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png" class="ep_doc_icon" border="0" /></a><div class="ep_preview" id="doc_preview_1210"><table><tr><td><img alt="" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/thumbnails/6/preview.png" class="ep_preview_image" border="0" /><div class="ep_preview_title">Preview</div></td></tr></table></div></td><td valign="top"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/6/06appendix.pdf"><span class="ep_document_citation">PDF (Appendix)</span></a> - Requires a PDF viewer<br />1519Kb</td></tr><tr><td valign="top" style="text-align:center"><a onmouseover="EPJS_ShowPreview( event, 'doc_preview_1211' );" href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/7/07references.pdf" onmouseout="EPJS_HidePreview( event, 'doc_preview_1211' );"><img alt="[img]" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/style/images/fileicons/application_pdf.png" class="ep_doc_icon" border="0" /></a><div class="ep_preview" id="doc_preview_1211"><table><tr><td><img alt="" src="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/thumbnails/7/preview.png" class="ep_preview_image" border="0" /><div class="ep_preview_title">Preview</div></td></tr></table></div></td><td valign="top"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/1042/7/07references.pdf"><span class="ep_document_citation">PDF (References)</span></a> - Requires a PDF viewer<br />266Kb</td></tr></table><div class="not_ep_block"><h2>Abstract</h2><p style="padding-bottom: 16px; text-align: left; margin: 1em auto 0em auto">The Orange-bellied Parrot is one of only two obligate migratory parrots in the world.
  358. The species is listed nationally as endangered and has been the subject of intensive
  359. study and conservation activities over the past 25 years. Reproductive and
  360. demographic data collected over this period from the wild population form the basis
  361. of this thesis.
  362. Remote breeding sites in southwestern Tasmania at Melaleuca and Birchs Inlet were
  363. used to study this species in the wild. Through deployment of up to 52 artificial nest
  364. boxes and observations of natural nests at Melaleuca it was possible to collect
  365. information on a range of reproductive success parameters over a long period,
  366. including 12 consecutive breeding seasons. In addition, the provision of up to 33 nest
  367. boxes over seven consecutive years at Birchs Inlet provided a comparison with the
  368. use of nest boxes by several competitors at Melaleuca. The use of colour-bands to
  369. identify 760 individuals from 16 different cohorts provided the means to assess a
  370. range of behavioural and demographic parameters of the species.
  371. This study confirmed the Orange-bellied Parrot has a regular migratory pattern with
  372. birds beginning to return to the breeding area on the 2nd October (plus or minus 5.1 days s.d) in
  373. each year. The first birds to return are those in their second year of life or older, while
  374. first-year adult birds begin to arrive 13 days later. The median arrival date for birds in
  375. their second year or older was the 23rd October compared with 9th November for firstyear
  376. adult birds. There was no difference between the sexes in arrival date. The mean
  377. date of last departure from Melaleuca was 5th April (plus or minus 11.1 days s.d).
  378. A total of 190 nests with known contents were studied in the wild and, of these 185
  379. nests contained eggs and five nests contained no eggs. This study found the earliest
  380. laying date was on the 29th November and the latest was the 19th January with eggs
  381. (95%) laid during December (n = 101 eggs). Clutch size ranged from 2-6 eggs with over half of the clutches having 5 eggs and 95.3% of all clutches 4-6 eggs in size. The
  382. mean clutch size was 4.7 eggs per active nest across all years and there was no
  383. evidence the species can produce second clutches in the wild. The mean incubation
  384. period for Orange-bellied Parrot eggs was 21.4 plus or minus 0.8 days (n = 49 observed
  385. incubations). The mean dimensions of unhatched eggs was 22.9 plus or minus 0.98 mm by 18.5 plus or minus 0.67 mm (n = 99 eggs).
  386. The 185 nests with eggs studied by this work contained a total of 874 eggs. Of these
  387. 695 eggs hatched and 179 eggs failed to hatch. Of the 179 failures, 107 eggs (69.7%)
  388. were infertile, 48 eggs (26.8%) were fertile and 24 eggs (13.4%) were of unknown
  389. fertility. Of the 48 unhatched fertile eggs, 23 eggs (47.9%) were early-term failures, 15
  390. eggs (31.2%) were mid-term failures and 10 eggs (20.8%) were late-term failures. The
  391. mean egg fertility rate for the species was calculated to be 85.6% (plus or minus 2.91 s.e).
  392. Hatching success from all eggs laid was 79.5% (i.e. 695 nestlings hatched from 874
  393. eggs laid) with the mean hatching success across all years being 80.2%. A total of 89
  394. nestlings died prior to fledging. Early stage deaths represented 44.9% (n = 40) of all
  395. mortalities and late stage deaths 55.1% (n = 49). The annual egg failure and nestling
  396. mortality varied across years. Of a total of 268 egg and nestling failures across all
  397. years, 66.8% (n = 179 eggs) were attributable to hatch failure and 33.2% (n = 89
  398. nestlings) to mortality. Unhatched infertile eggs represented most (39.9%, n = 107) of
  399. all failures. Of the 190 nesting attempts, only 27 failed to produce any young. The
  400. most common cause of total nest failure was attributed to failure to hatch (44.4%, n =
  401. 12) followed by nestling deaths (37%, n = 10) and no eggs laid (18.5%, n = 5).
  402. Average brood size was 4.0 nestlings plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from 173 nests with
  403. 65.9% of nests producing four (33.5%) or five (32.4%) nestlings. The majority of nests
  404. produced four fledglings with a mean fledgling brood size of 3.7 plus or minus 0.09 s.e (range = 1-6) from the 163 successful nests. Only 4.3% of successful nests produced the
  405. maximum of six fledglings.
  406. Of the 190 Orange-bellied Parrot nests studied, 85.8% (n = 163) produced fledglings.
  407. The distribution of nest productivity is presented and discussed in detail. The number
  408. of fledglings produced per breeding attempt varied between zero and six. A total of
  409. 69% of all nests produced 3-5 fledglings whereas 33% of all nests produced four
  410. fledglings. The fledging success for 12 consecutive breeding seasons was 87.2% (606
  411. fledglings from 695 nestlings) and the mean fledging success across all years was
  412. 86.9% (plus or minus 2.47 s.e). The overall breeding success for the Orange-bellied Parrot was
  413. 69.3% (606 fledglings from 874 eggs laid). The overall reproductive output of the
  414. species was 3.3 fledglings per nest (606 fledglings from 185 nests) from an investment
  415. of 4.7 eggs laid.
  416. Egg fertility, nestling survival and fledgling survival of Orange-bellied Parrots in the
  417. wild is noticeably higher than for the captive population, and is equal to or exceeds
  418. many other Psittacidae. The reproductive success results reported here are
  419. comparable with the more common Turquoise Parrot Neophema pulchella of mainland
  420. Australia. Although the Orange-bellied Parrot has a healthy mean fecundity rate of
  421. 1.62 females/egg laying female, there was some variability between years, with a low
  422. of 0.87 females/egg laying female in 1998/99.
  423. The mean lifespan of the Orange-bellied Parrot was calculated to be 2.22 years (plus or minus 0.074 s.e, range = 0.37-11.70, N = 693) with no significant difference between male and
  424. females. Males lived on average for 2.75 years (plus or minus 0.127 s.e, range = 0.43-11.70, n = 240)
  425. and females lived on average for 2.67 years (plus or minus 0.141 s.e, range = 0.18-10.41, n = 189).
  426. The oldest male recorded was 11.70 years of age and the oldest female recorded was
  427. 10.41 years of age. This study was not able to compare the reproductive lifespan of
  428. wild Orange-bellied Parrots with captive-bred birds due to database problems or with other Psittacidae due to lack of comparable studies. The capacity to compare the wild
  429. population with captive-bred birds and other Psittacidae will greatly enhance our
  430. knowledge of the species.
  431. This work suggests the Orange-bellied Parrot does not have a strong fidelity to mates,
  432. nest site or nesting zone. This finding is contrary to previous assumptions made about
  433. the species. This study did not measure hollow availability; however, a comparison of
  434. the use of nest boxes between Birchs Inlet and Melaleuca indicates competition from
  435. introduced species may be limiting the breeding range and reproductive success.
  436. Survivorship rates of juveniles to first breeding (c. one year old), adults and both
  437. sexes were determined. Mean survivorship of juveniles over the study was 55% (plus or minus  3.2
  438. s.e) and is within expected limits when compared to other Psittacidae. Mean
  439. survivorship of adults was 63.6% (plus or minus 2.0 s.e). There was a decreasing trend in survival
  440. rates across all cohorts from 1999 onward with average annual survival declining
  441. markedly thereafter. The reason for this decline is unclear. There was no difference in
  442. survival rate of each sex over the study.
  443. This study has significantly increased our understanding of the reproductive success
  444. and demography of the Orange-bellied Parrot. This information will reduce the level
  445. of uncertainty in the Population Viability Analysis model for the species and, in turn,
  446. increase the power of such models to assess the species status and test the
  447. effectiveness of conservation measures. Some of the results of this study have
  448. important implications for future research and conservation of the species. These are
  449. discussed, and include management of nest boxes, refinement of mark-recapture
  450. studies, population viability analysis and influence of introduced nest competitors.</p></div><table style="margin-bottom: 1em" cellpadding="3" class="not_ep_block" border="0"><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">Item Type:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row">Thesis (Research Master)</td></tr><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">Keywords:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row">fauna, tasmania, parrot, orange-bellied parrot, endangered species, birds</td></tr><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">Subjects:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row"><a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/view/subjects/270706.html">270000 Biological Sciences &gt; 270700 Ecology and Evolution &gt; 270706 Life Histories (incl. Population Ecology)</a></td></tr><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">ID Code:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row">1042</td></tr><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">Deposited By:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row"><span class="ep_name_citation"><span class="person_name">UTas Digital Archives Librarian</span></span></td></tr><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">Deposited On:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row">18 May 2007</td></tr><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">Last Modified:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row">09 Jan 2008 02:30</td></tr><tr><th valign="top" class="ep_row">ePrint Statistics:</th><td valign="top" class="ep_row"><a target="ePrintStats" href="/es/index.php?action=show_detail_eprint;id=1042;">View statistics for this ePrint</a></td></tr></table><p align="right">Repository Staff Only: <a href="http://eprints.utas.edu.au/cgi/users/home?screen=EPrint::View&amp;eprintid=1042">item control page</a></p>
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